Abstract

This paper explores the impact of celebrities on Indian electoral politics, particularly in the context of the television and information technology revolutions. The expansion of television and, more recently, digital platforms has significantly amplified celebrity influence, allowing them to shape political discourse and directly connect with audiences. It explores how national and regional parties have strategically fielded celebrities to attract voters. By analyzing historical and contemporary examples, the study finds that while celebrity fame can aid in garnering attention, their electoral success and political impact depend on broader political trends and their individual understanding of governance. Cases like M.G. Ramachandran and Jayalalithaa demonstrate the importance of combining public appeal with political acumen. The study concludes that celebrity participation does not undermine substantive political discourse but recommends further case-by-case analyses to understand the dynamics of their success and failure in Indian politics.

Keywords: Indian Politics; Celebrities in Politics; Cinema and Cricket Celebrities, Electoral Politics; Substantial Democracy

Introduction:

The involvement of celebrities in politics is not a recent phenomenon, as history reveals a long-standing trend of celebrities either working for political parties or directly participating in the political process (Wheeler 2013). India is no exception in this regard, where celebrities hold immense significance, extending far beyond mere entertainment. Celebrities play a powerful role in shaping social values, influencing group behavior, speech, and fashion. In many ways, they act as a mirror, reflecting and reinforcing societal trends and norms (Ahmed 1992). The trend of celebrities’ participation into Indian politics has grown significantly in recent decades, where actors, sports figures, and other celebrities are increasingly stepping into the political arena (Mothilal et al. 2022; Mukherjee 2004; Tripathy 2013). Their influence is often seen as a tool to attract voters and generate public interest in political campaigns, raising questions about the broader implications for democratic engagement.

As this trend continues to evolve, there is growing debate over whether celebrity participation in politics enhances or undermines the substance of democracy. While some argue that celebrities can broaden political engagement by attracting a diverse segment of society to the political process (McKernan 2011; Wheeler 2013, 2018), others contend that such involvement may diminish the focus on substantive political issues and governance (Kane, Patapan, and ’T Hart 2009; Street 2004). Despite the increasing prominence of celebrities in Indian politics, there remains a significant gap in literature regarding their impact on the political landscape, particularly in terms of their influence on public opinion, political success/failure, and governance.

This research aims to address this gap by examining the impact of celebrities, particularly from the worlds of cinema and sports, on Indian politics. By exploring the factors that contribute to their political success and the challenges they face in the political arena, this study seeks to provide a nuanced understanding of how celebrity status translates into political power. This research seeks to explore two main questions: What factors determine the political success of Indian actors, and what challenges do they face in the political arena? The thesis of this paper argues that while celebrities bring a strong fanbase and visibility to politics, achieving success in governance requires more than mere stardom. This research is based on secondary sources and focuses on a selection of prominent Indian celebrities from cinema and cricket, broadening the discussion to explore their political influence and the implications of their involvement in the political sphere.

Celebrities in the Political Arena:

Several celebrities leverage their fame and media attention to influence the masses, either by endorsing a particular party or individual or by directly entering politics, transforming their popularity into political power (Biti 2024; Wheeler 2013). This strategy is not a modern invention; historically, celebrities have become integral to the political establishment, forging emotional and symbolic connections with the masses to garner support. With the advent of television, and later social media, platforms like Twitter and Instagram have amplified this trend, enabling celebrity politicians to craft personalized political personas and directly engage with audiences, bypassing traditional gatekeepers (Blake 2016). The phenomenon of the ‘celebrity politician’ has gained significant political and media attention, with two main variants: elected politicians using celebrity status to claim representation, and celebrities leveraging their popularity to speak for public opinion. The intersection of celebrity and politics has seen mixed outcomes globally. Successful examples of celebrities from the cinema and television world include Ronald Reagan (The 40th president of the United States), Arnold Schwarzenegger (Governor of California, USA), and Volodymyr Zelenskyy (6th President of Ukraine), who effectively leveraged their public appeal for impactful governance. In contrast, figures like Imran Khan (Pakistani politician cum former cricketer), George Weah (Liberian politician cum former professional footballer), and Joseph Estrada (Filipino actor cum politician) struggled with economic, governance, and corruption issues, highlighting the challenges of sustaining political success beyond celebrity status (Wheeler 2013).

India’s entertainment and sports industries are deeply intertwined with its political sphere, with celebrities using their fame to exert political influence (Karan 2019). Many of them directly engage in active political life, while others influence voters by aligning themselves with specific political parties at different points in time. Studies indicate that political parties, notably the ruling BJP, have effectively utilized celebrities for social media campaigns, with sportspersons often showing partisan support for the incumbent party (Mothilal et al. 2022). The mass viewership and commercialization of cricket in South Asia, particularly through the Indian Premier League (IPL), have deeply intertwined sports, entertainment, and politics (Rasul and Proffitt 2011). Bollywood icons and cricket legends frequently impact Indian politics by mobilizing voter participation (Star and Watson-Lynn 2019). This trend is especially strong in South India, where film stars have successfully founded political parties and secured electoral victories (Dickey 1993), although similar cases, but not very successful, also exist in Hindi heartland north India as well (Prasad 1999).

M.G. Ramachandran (MGR), an iconic Tamil actor, achieved remarkable success in politics, becoming one of Tamil Nadu’s most influential leaders. Initially a member of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), he broke away in 1972 to establish the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) following ideological and personal differences (Widlund 1993). Leveraging his immense popularity and heroic on-screen image as a champion of the poor, MGR seamlessly transitioned his cinematic charisma into a political asset, earning the unwavering support of Tamil Nadu’s masses (Maheshwar and Subramanian 2020). As Chief Minister from 1977 to 1987, MGR’s leadership was marked by a focus on public welfare programs, including subsidized food schemes and educational initiatives, which endeared him to marginalized communities (Forrester 1976). His tenure also brought political stability to Tamil Nadu, with the AIADMK emerging as a formidable rival to the DMK. Even after his death in 1987, MGR’s legacy continued to shape Tamil Nadu’s political landscape, with his policies and leadership style influencing subsequent generations (Widlund 1993).

Jayalalithaa Jayaram, another renowned Tamil actress-turned-politician, successfully transitioned from cinema to politics, leveraging her immense popularity to become a commanding figure in Tamil Nadu politics (Verma 2022). Mentored by M.G. Ramachandran (MGR), she overcame patriarchal barriers in a male-dominated political arena to serve multiple terms as Chief Minister. Known for her charisma and administrative acumen, Jayalalithaa left an indelible mark on Tamil Nadu’s political landscape, epitomizing the intersection of celebrity and political power in India. Her followers often referred to as bhaktas, exhibited extraordinary devotion, creating a divine-like persona around her through rituals and public displays of loyalty (Holt, 2019). Despite the challenges she faced as a woman in power, Jayalalithaa’s ability to translate her star power into a formidable voter base remains a defining aspect of her legacy (Karthikeyan 2018; Maheshwar and Subramanian 2020). Her journey underscores the profound impact of celebrity status in shaping political leadership and influence.

In India, not all celebrity ventures into politics have been successful, often due to a lack of political acumen, strategic leadership, or genuine connection with voters. For instance, Bollywood actor Amitabh Bachchan’s brief political career serves as a prominent example of such failure. Despite his immense popularity, Bachchan’s tenure as an MP from Allahabad in the 1980s was marked by controversy and limited impact, leading to his resignation after just three years.  Govinda, who was elected as an MP from Mumbai North in 2004, faced criticism for his lack of engagement with constituents and eventually quit politics. Rajesh Khanna’s political career as an MP from New Delhi was short-lived, and Vinod Khanna’s influence declined over time. Dharmendra, although elected as an MP, remained largely inactive in parliamentary proceedings (Desk 2023). Similarly, Hema Malini, despite being elected, has struggled to make a significant political impact. She also faced criticism during the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, with a “missing MP” campaign highlighting her diminishing popularity in the constituency (Murari 2024). This highlights the challenges celebrities face in translating fame into effective political leadership, especially when their engagement with grassroots issues is insufficient.

In recent decades Bhojpuri celebrities and songs are also visible in politics. Bhojpuri, an Indo-Aryan language with a rich tradition in folk music, literature, and cinema, is predominantly spoken in the northern Indian states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Jharkhand, where approximately 60 million people identified it as their mother tongue in the 2011 Census, though its effective reach is broader due to many listing it under Hindi (Tripathy 2013). Bhojpuri thrives globally in diaspora communities across regions like Mauritius, Fiji, and the USA, reflecting colonial migration patterns. Its cultural impact is strengthened by Bhojpuri cinema and folk traditions, serving as a linguistic and cultural bridge within India and the diaspora (Srivastava and Dixit 2024). The growing prominence of the Bhojpuri language in popular media has also paved the way for Bhojpuri celebrities to increasingly enter politics, leveraging their popularity and influence, particularly in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand. Stars like Manoj Tiwari, who became a Member of Parliament from Delhi in 2014, and Dinesh Lal Yadav (Nirahua), who aligned with the BJP and contested elections in Uttar Pradesh, have used their fame to connect with rural and working-class voters. Similarly, Ravi Kishan joined the BJP and won the Gorakhpur seat in 2019 (Chakrabarty 2024). These celebrity-politicians often address regional issues like infrastructure and social welfare, while their film careers provide them with a platform to engage with the public. Their political involvement has sparked debates about the overlap between entertainment and governance, but they continue to have significant visibility in electoral politics. Additionally, the growing popularity of Bhojpuri music has made it a key tool in political campaigns, with parties using songs to highlight achievements, criticize opponents, and appeal to regional pride, showcasing the cultural and political influence of Bhojpuri media in shaping electoral dynamics (Deb 2024).

Similarly, several sports celebrities have ventured into politics, but their political careers often lack lasting impact. Many former Indian cricketers have ventured into politics, but aside from winning elections, few have managed to make a lasting impact. Yusuf Pathan, the World Cup-winning cricketer, joined the All-India Trinamool Congress (AITC) and won the 2024 Lok Sabha elections from Behrampore in West Bengal, where he faced a tough challenge from Congress MP Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury. Gautam Gambhir (BJP) won a seat in 2019 Lok Sabha Election but did not contest in 2024 election. Harbhajan Singh (AAP) joined the Rajya Sabha but has yet to face an electoral contest. Other cricketers like Mohammad Azharuddin (Congress), Navjot Singh Sidhu (BJP and Congress), and Kirti Azad (Congress, BJP, AITC) have had mixed political careers, with some winning elections but struggling to maintain influence. Even stalwarts like Chetan Chauhan (BJP) and Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi (Vishal Haryana Party) saw limited political success, while figures like Vinod Kambli (Lok Bharati Party) and Mohammad Kaif (Congress) failed to gain significant traction (Singh 2024). These cricketers’ political journeys underscore the challenges of translating sporting fame into enduring political influence.

In India, the allure of celebrity often paves the way for figures from entertainment and sports to enter politics, where their fame initially secures them significant visibility. However, once in the political arena, many of these celebrities struggle to make a lasting impact. Despite their popularity, they often fail to articulate independent opinions or engage in meaningful political discourse, often remaining passive within their parties. This lack of political depth may stem from a limited understanding of governance, coupled with the reluctance to address the complex societal issues that politics demands. Unlike M.G. Ramachandran (MGR) and Jayalalithaa in Tamil Nadu, who used their stardom to create substantial social change, many other celebrity politicians lack the will or vision to push for systemic reforms, leading to their eventual political marginalization.

Discussion: Celebrity Shapes Politics or Politics Shapes Celebrity

The trend of celebrities entering politics has gained substantial momentum, especially in the Western world, with the United States serving as a notable example. The rise of television and, more recently, digital platforms has amplified celebrity influence, enabling them to shape political narratives and engage audiences directly. The use of celebrities in U.S. politics dates back to the 1920s, when Broadway stars like Al Jolson campaigned for Calvin Coolidge. Over time, this trend expanded, with Hollywood and sports figures becoming increasingly involved in political endorsements. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s 1944 campaign notably engaged entertainers like Frank Sinatra to rally support (Brownell 2014). Eisenhower’s presidential campaigns transformed American political culture by professionalizing political communication through advertising and television, emphasizing image and personality over substantive policy discussions. These strategies redefined political engagement by allowing candidates to connect directly with voters, bypassing traditional party structures, while also diluting the deliberative nature of democracy by prioritizing emotional appeals and spectacle. Eisenhower’s approach set the stage for modern celebrity politics, influencing leaders like Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump, and blending politics with entertainment to make candidates cultural icons. While celebrity politics has democratized political messaging, it has also undermined the depth and integrity of political discourse, leaving a lasting impact on today’s media-driven political landscape (Blake 2016).

The rise and widespread use of information technology have undeniably amplified the influence of celebrities on politics, shaping public perception and discourse. Celebrities hold two key forms of power: drawing media attention to specific issues and persuading audiences to adopt their viewpoints. Angelina Jolie, a renowned actress and humanitarian, has been a passionate advocate for refugees and displaced persons as a UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador (Ayeni 2018). She actively supports women’s rights and children’s protection in conflict zones while raising awareness and funds for humanitarian causes, and through the Jolie-Pitt Foundation, she has contributed to healthcare, education, and conservation efforts, particularly in Africa.

Bob Marley used his music and influence to foster unity and peace in Jamaica, addressing social and political issues like poverty and inequality through his songs. His iconic performances, including the 1978 “One Love Peace Concert”, aimed to bring together political rivals and promote national reconciliation (Toynbee 2007). John Lennon, in contrast, became a vocal critic of U.S. President Richard Nixon, especially during the Vietnam War, using his music and public platform to challenge the government’s policies. Through songs like “Give Peace a Chance” and his activism, Lennon advocated for peace, civil rights, and an end to the war, boldly opposing the establishment (Harvey 2017). Similarly, figures like Robert Redford exemplify this phenomenon through their evolution as actors, directors, and cultural icons. Redford’s career, particularly during the transformative New Hollywood era, illustrates how celebrity power intersects with political activism. Using his platform, he has successfully championed social and environmental causes, blending stardom with a commitment to advocacy and reshaping the role of celebrities in both the film industry and the political arena (Allen 2021).

In India, Tamil Nadu stands out for its successful integration of celebrity influence into politics. M.G. Ramachandran (MGR) and Jayalalithaa Jayaram effectively leveraged their cinematic fame to build strong political legacies. MGR’s portrayal of a savior of the poor on-screen deeply resonated with the masses, bolstering his voter base through impactful welfare policies. Jayalalithaa, mentored by MGR, combined her star appeal with strategic political leadership to overcome gender barriers and amass widespread support. Their welfare programs and personal charisma ensured their enduring dominance in Tamil politics.

Celebrity involvement in politics often undermines democratic values by prioritizing personal agendas and shaping public discourse around selective issues, ignoring broader political complexities. Their disproportionate epistemic power allows them to dominate narratives and influence knowledge systems, often leveraging status rather than expertise (Kane et al. 2009; Street 2004). This risks sidelining diverse perspectives, weakening deliberative rigor, and compromising principles like informed and inclusive participation essential to democratic legitimacy (Archer et al. 2020). Amplified by media attention and public appeal, celebrity influence can overshadow institutional frameworks, turning politics into a spectacle driven by popularity rather than deliberation. There are several global examples that demonstrate how celebrities, knowingly or unknowingly, participate in politics, often taking sides that undermine substantive democracy. By leveraging their fame and influence, they can sway public opinion, but their involvement may prioritize personal or selective agendas, which often oversimplifies complex political issues. For an example, Ben Affleck, an American actor and director, founded the Eastern Congo Initiative (ECI) in 2010 to support Congolese-led efforts in health, education, human rights, and economic development. ECI emphasizes a sustainable development model, fostering business partnerships such as connecting Congolese coffee farmers with global companies like Starbucks to create lasting economic opportunities (Harvey 2017). While it has been praised for raising awareness and advocating policy changes for the Democratic Republic of Congo, critics argue that it represents a trend in celebrity activism prioritizing global visibility over meaningful local involvement (Budabin and Richey 2021). Affleck’s work demonstrates both the potential and limitations of celebrity-driven development initiatives, highlighting the need for greater accountability and deeper engagement with local contexts.

The use of celebrities in political campaigns often undermines substantive democracy by shifting voter attention from critical issues to the celebrity’s iconic image. Political parties in India are increasingly leveraging the influence of celebrities, particularly from Bollywood and cricket, to shape political discourse and influence voter behavior (Star and Watson-Lynn 2019). The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has been more successful than opposition parties in engaging celebrities, especially athletes, by using non-partisan, nationalism-driven narratives that resonate with voters (Mothilal et al. 2022). This strategy aligns with research indicating that celebrity endorsements can significantly sway voting patterns, particularly among first-time voters (Wood and Herbst 2007).  

On the other hand, despite gaining entry into politics due to their fame, most of the celebrities fail to make a lasting impact in politics. Once in the political arena, they struggle to establish a lasting presence, often failing to express independent views or contribute to meaningful political discussions. This lack of impact can be attributed to a limited understanding of governance and a reluctance to engage with the complex societal issues that politics requires. Instead of driving change, they remain passive figures within their parties. Moreover, celebrity advocacy often lacks accountability, reflecting individual preferences rather than collective mandates, which erodes substantive democratic engagement and promotes superficial solutions to systemic challenges. Those who closely follow celebrity culture are often less politically engaged and less likely to use their social networks for discussions or actions on public issues. While this does not imply that celebrity culture is inherently negative, it challenges the idea that popular culture significantly contributes to fostering effective democratic participation (Couldry and Markham 2007). This dynamic underscore the limitations of celebrity influence in promoting sustained civic engagement and meaningful political discourse.

In India, with a few exceptions, the lasting impact of celebrities on politics has been limited. Since independence, Indian voters largely entrusted power to the Congress Party during the first three decades, undoubtedly due to its prominent role in the freedom struggle. Over time, the Congress Party’s dominance began to decline following the imposition of the Emergency in 1975 as regional parties gained traction, reflecting the growing political aspirations of regional and marginalized communities. However, since 2014, there has been a significant shift, with voters aligning more with Hindutva politics, which appeals to the majority Hindu population through a narrow definition of nationalism and communal rhetoric (Sharma 2015; Suri 2021). In this context, celebrities in India enjoy mass appeal and often serve as crowd-pullers during elections and political events. However, their influence on shaping substantive public discourse and driving significant changes in electoral politics remains largely limited. Almost every party, including the BJP and various regional parties, has relied on fielding several celebrities in political campaigns and as party candidates. However, the winnability of these candidates often depends on broader political trends. For instance, the first three decades of India’s independence were dominated by the Congress Party, followed by the rise of regional parties, and since 2014, the ascendancy of Hindutva forces. Throughout this period, the larger political discourse and political outcomes were shaped by ideologies and strategies of the concerned party or alliance, with celebrities in India rarely playing a significant role in setting the agenda and outcome of politics. Exceptions like M.G. Ramachandran (MGR) and Jayalalithaa in Tamil Nadu highlight instances where celebrity-politicians have had a lasting political impact, but such examples are uncommon.

Thus, concerns about celebrity involvement in politics having a substantial impact on political discourse may be overstated. Celebrities who have had a lasting influence on politics in history did so not merely due to their fame but because of several other contributing factors. However, with the advent of television after the Second World War and the rise of information technology, celebrities have increasingly entered the political domain, often to woo voters. This phenomenon plays an undeniable role but also negatively impacts the substance of democratic culture. Nevertheless, voting behavior does not necessarily rely on celebrity appeal but is shaped by larger political discourse and various other factors. Hence, it would not be wrong to conclude that, in the majority of cases, politics harnesses the power and fame of celebrities in ways that suit its objectives. However, the potential for celebrities to shape politics also exists, as evidenced by several notable instances.

Conclusion:

This paper finds that with the advent of television and the ongoing IT revolution, celebrities have consistently held a significant role as crowd-pullers in electoral battles. In India, particularly in recent times, national parties like the BJP and various regional parties have strategically fielded celebrities from cinema and cricket to woo voters. However, the winnability of celebrity candidates and their influence on broader electoral outcomes is determined more by prevailing political discourses than by their fame alone.

Even after securing electoral victories, the ability of celebrities to shape political agendas and influence larger political discourses depends on various factors, most notably their understanding of politics and governance. Public fame, while advantageous, does not guarantee success in agenda-setting or political impact. The cases of M.G. Ramachandran (MGR) and Jayalalithaa exemplify this trend, demonstrating that sustained political success requires a combination of charisma, political acumen, and strategic leadership. Therefore, the participation of celebrities in politics, while often perceived as a challenge to substantive political discourse, does not pose a serious threat to the larger political process. Instead, their impact remains contingent upon broader political contexts and their individual capacities to engage with the complexities of governance.

This paper recommends further research through case studies examining the successes and failures of celebrity participation in Indian politics over the past decade. Although comprehensive data remains lacking, it is evident that celebrity politics has evolved into more than a fringe phenomenon across many countries. Far from being transient, it is deeply embedded in the late-modern public sphere and is likely here to stay. This underscores the urgent need for systematic empirical research to better understand its nature, dynamics, and effects (Marsh, Hart, and Tindall 2010). Such investigations are crucial to achieving a balanced evaluation of celebrity politics’ role in contemporary governance, democracy, and political discourse.

References:

Ahmed, Akbar S. 1992. “Bombay Films: The Cinema as Metaphor for Indian Society and Politics.” Modern Asian Studies 26(2):289–320. doi: 10.1017/S0026749X00009793

Allen, Michael. 2021. Robert Redford and American Cinema: Modern Film Stardom and the Politics of Celebrity. 1st ed. London ; New York: Bloomsbury Academic.

Archer, Alfred, Amanda Cawston, Benjamin Matheson, and Machteld Geuskens. 2020. “Celebrity, Democracy, and Epistemic Power.” Perspectives on Politics 18(1):27–42. doi: 10.1017/S1537592719002615.

Ayeni, Oluwadamilola. 2018. “The Dynamics of Circuit of Culture Model in Promoting Angelina Jolie’s Humanitarian Activities.” Studies in Media and Communication 6(2):12. doi: 10.11114/smc.v6i2.3493.

Biti, Ozren. 2024. “Pandemic Persona and Digital Culture: The Role of Celebrity Politicians on Social Networks.” Etnoantropološki Problemi / Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology 19(1). doi: 10.21301/eap.v19i1.2.

Blake, David Haven. 2016. Liking Ike: Eisenhower, Advertising, and the Rise of Celebrity Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Brownell, Kathryn Cramer, ed. 2014. Showbiz Politics: Hollywood in American Political Life. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.

Budabin, Alexandra Cosima, and Lisa Ann Richey. 2021. Batman Saves the Congo: How Celebrities Disrupt the Politics of Development. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Chakrabarty, Sreeparna. 2024. “Political Reality: Everybody Loves a Bhojpuri Star but the Language Remains Marginal to Mainstream Politics.” The Hindu, April 1.

Couldry, Nick, and Tim Markham. 2007. “Celebrity Culture and Public Connection: Bridge or Chasm?” International Journal of Cultural Studies 10(4):403–21. doi: 10.1177/1367877907083077.

Deb, Abhik. 2024. “What Explains the Political Appeal of Bhojpuri Music Stars for Bihari Migrants?” Scroll.In. Retrieved November 26, 2024 (https://scroll.in/article/1064621/what-explains-the-political-appeal-of-bhojpuri-music-stars-for-bihari-migrants).

Desk, India News. 2023. “No Cakewalk! 10 Popular Film Stars Who Took the Political Plunge but Failed.” Financial Express, March 13.

Dickey, Sara. 1993. “The Politics of Adulation: Cinema and the Production of Politicians in South India.” The Journal of Asian Studies 52(2):340–72. doi: 10.2307/2059651.

Forrester, Duncan. 1976. “Factions and Filmstars: Tamil Nadu Politics since 1971.” Asian Survey 16(3):283–96. doi: 10.2307/2643545.

Harvey, Mark. 2017. Celebrity Influence: Politics, Persuasion, and Issue-Based Advocacy. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.

Kane, John, Haig Patapan, and Paul ’T Hart. 2009. Dispersed Democratic Leadership. Oxford University Press.

Karan, Kavita. 2019. “Cultural Political System: Popular Culture and Films in Indian Election Campaigns.” in Civic Engagement and Politics: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications, edited by I. R. Management Association. IGI Global.

Karthikeyan, D. 2018. “A Colossus of Tamil Politics.” Economic & Political Weekly 53(2):27.

Maheshwar, Balaji, and Karthik Subramanian. 2020. “Image Deities and Devotees.” Membrana Journal of Photography (Vol. 5, 2):36–59. doi: 10.47659/m9.036.ess.

Marsh, David, Paul ‘T Hart, and Karen Tindall. 2010. “Celebrity Politics: The Politics of the Late Modernity?” Political Studies Review 8(3):322–40. doi: 10.1111/j.1478-9302.2010.00215.x.

McKernan, Brian. 2011. “Politics and Celebrity: A Sociological Understanding.” Sociology Compass 5(3):190–202. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2011.00359.x.

Mothilal, Ramaravind Kommiya, Dibyendu Mishra, Sachita Nishal, Faisal M. Lalani, and Joyojeet Pal. 2022. “Voting with the Stars: Analyzing Partisan Engagement between Celebrities and Politicians in India.” Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 6(CSCW1):1–29. doi: 10.1145/3512981.

Mukherjee, J. 2004. “Celebrity, Media and Politics: An Indian Perspective.” Parliamentary Affairs 57(1):80–92. doi: 10.1093/pa/gsh007.

Murari, Krishan. 2024. “Mathura Residents Unhappy with ‘Missing’ MP Hema Malini, but Actor Confident of Third Term.” ThePrint. Retrieved November 30, 2024 (https://theprint.in/politics/mathura-residents-unhappy-with-missing-mp-hema-malini-but-actor-confident-of-third-term/2058704/).

Prasad, M. Madhava. 1999. “Cine-Politics: On the Political Significance of Cinema in South India.” Journal of the Moving Image 1(1):37–51.

Rasul, Azmat, and Jennifer M. Proffitt. 2011. “Bollywood and the Indian Premier League (IPL): The Political Economy of Bollywood’s New Blockbuster.” Asian Journal of Communication 21(4):373–88. doi: 10.1080/01292986.2011.580851.

Sharma, Jyotirmaya. 2015. Hindutva: Exploring the Idea of Hindu Nationalism. Revised edition. Uttar Pradesh, India: HarperCollins Publishers India.

Srivastava, Anushka, and Prabhat Dixit. 2024. “From the Margins to the Mainstream Bhojpuri Cinema: Review of the Book Provincializing Bollywood: Bhojpuri Cinema in the Comparative Media Crucible.” Quarterly Review of Film and Video 1–5. doi: 10.1080/10509208.2024.2428897.

Star, Shaun, and Erin Watson-Lynn. 2019. “The Growing Influence of Celebrity Politics in India.”

Street, John. 2004. “Celebrity Politicians: Popular Culture and Political Representation.” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 6(4):435–52. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-856X.2004.00149.x.

Suri, KC. 2021. “Emergence of BJP’s Dominance and Its Durability.” Economic and Political Weekly 56(10).

Toynbee, Jason. 2007. Bob Marley: Herald of a Postcolonial World? Polity.

Tripathy, Ratnakar. 2013. “Mapping the Invisible World of Bhojpuri Cinema and Its Changing Audience.” in Routledge handbook of Indian cinemas, Routledge handbooks, edited by K. M. Gokulsing and W. Dissanayake. London New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor & Francis group.

Verma, Amit. 2022. “Iron Lady of Indian Politics: Review of the Film Thalaivii.” Media Asia 49(2):188–91. doi: 10.1080/01296612.2021.2006405.

Wheeler, Mark. 2013. Celebrity Politics. Polity.

Wheeler, Mark. 2018. “Celebrity Politics and Cultural Studies Within the United States and United Kingdom.” in Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication, edited by M. Wheeler. Oxford University Press.

Widlund, Ingrid. 1993. “A Vote for MGR. Transaction and Devotion in South Indian Politics.” Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift 96(3).

Wood, Natalie T., and Kenneth C. Herbst. 2007. “Political Star Power and Political Parties: Does Celebrity Endorsement Win First-Time Votes?” Journal of Political Marketing 6(2–3):141–58. doi: 10.1300/J199v06n02_08.