The Untold History of Jal Tarang: A Critical Exploration of its Origin, Evolution and Preservation Initiatives

Sumita Dutta, UGC NET-JRF; M.A. Vocal Music, Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata, West Bengal

 Email: sumitadutta277@gmail.com

Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=oDCnmNYAAAAJ 

Dipankar Chakraborty, HoD, Cell Culture Facility; GCC Biotech (India) Pvt. Ltd. West Bengal 

Email: dipankar390@gmail.com

Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Yk_kCkQAAAAJ&hl=en

Abstract

A melodic idiophone of exceptional structure and musical stature, the Jal Tarang, has long been shrouded in mystery regarding its origins and evolution. Despite being a significant musical instrument, its historical evolution has been marred by unverified narratives. Contrary to popular belief, this study provides extensive textual and pictorial evidences to demonstrate that, Jal Tarang is a foreign instrument that was brought to India during the Muslim conquest and emerged gradually as a result of cross-cultural interactions among countries. This study delves into the overlooked works that have been neglected, thereby providing a detailed understanding of Jal Tarang’s historical origin, structure, practice and development through time. This study also concerns the instrument’s decline in popularity and present-day musical relevance. By shedding light on its authentic origins and evolution, this paper aims to revive the forgotten legacy of Jal Tarang, emphasizing the need for preservation and promotion to safeguard its rich cultural heritage for future generations.

Key words: Jal Tarang, Glass harmonica, Kasat, Oxyvaphi,Udaka Vadya, Singing bowl

Introduction:

Jal Tarang, the name as heard today is one of the finest melodic percussion instruments which comprises of sequentially arranged porcelain or China bowls of varying sizes filled at different water levels to produce musical notes when struck by wooden sticks. There exist several unverified information concerning the origins and evolution of Jal Tarang, many asserting its origin within the Indian subcontinent. The credibility of this history has been called into question since our study has revealed numerous more works that have been overlooked but which, if read, could affirm its authentic and linear historical roots and progression. Furthermore, because of its complex playing techniques, the instrument has not been a front-runner in history, and the declining popularity of this heritage instrument is clear today due to the paucity of proficient practitioners.

Historical Origin of Jal Tarang as per Indian records:

As per the popular available history, it is apparently believed by many that the precursor of Jal Tarang happened to be  Udaka Vadya, a major kala mentioned by Vatsayan in his Kamasutra (500 CE)[i]. Additionally, Kumbhasthunik  mentioned in Vidhura pandit Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and other Sutta texts (200 BCE)[ii] seemed to be known as the earliest water based instrument which also finds its mention in Harivansh Puran (400 BCE?)[iii], Bhagvata Puran (including tikas)[iv] and other contemporary texts.

However, the above references are misleading sources of Jal Tarang’s origin. Our research highlights the genuine identity of Udaka vadya. The Kamasutra’s commentary Jaymangal[v], and Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsham (500 CE)[vi] mentioned that the Udaka vadya is neither any kind nor form of instrument but is the sound of splashing on water with hands, which sounds similar to Muraj. Regarding Kumbhasthunik, there is much controversy surrounding, although Thakur Jaydeva Singh claims it to be the precursor of Jal Tarang[vii], other sources indicate that it is actually kumbha vadya (modern Ghatam)[viii].

It was not until thousand years after these references that we were able to trace any written records in India that mentioned or described Jal Tarang. The first recorded account of Jal Tarang can be found in the work Saqi-nama, which dates back to 1616 CE. It so occurred that this text provided the first referential description of Jal Tarang in India.

Saqi-nama by Nur al-Din Muhammad Tahir Zuhuri (1616 CE) described different musical instruments of Indian and Iranian origin with remarkable illustrations[ix] (figure 1). According to its descriptions, Jal Tarang is an instrument from Iran that is played by striking small sticks against the rim of four porcelain cups of varying sizes and are filled with varying amounts of water[x]. Originally from Iran, Zuhuri moved to Ahmadnagar (1580 CE), during the reign of Sultan Murtaza Shah. There, he lived for 16 years under the patronage of numerous Nizamshahi emperors. Zuhuri was famous in Mughal court also as Faizi (d. 1595 AD), the Mughal court poet remained in good touch with him. Later, the Khān-i-khānān welcomed Zuhuri to the Mughal court[xi].

The Bhakti and Vaishnavite movements in medieval India reshaped India’s cultural landscape, including music. Many contemporary poets including Kabir (1450 CE)[xii], Krishnadas (1608 CE)[xiii] and Bhikha Saheb (1760 CE)[xiv] have made reference to Jal Tarang in their works.

Sangita Parijata of Ahobal (1650 CE) is the first Sanskrit text to describe Jal Tarang. He termed it as an idiophone, Jalayantra; consisting 22 containers set with varying amounts of water placed in a precise way from high to low pitch (a set of fewer than 22 cups is called a Madhyam Jalayantra). It is adjusted by gradually adding or reducing water from the cup until it is tuned to its reference scale. It is played by striking on the rim of the cup with ~12 inch long bamboo or cane sticks[xv].

In his Ragadarpana (1654 CE), Gawaliyari Faqirullah Faqir Saif Khan also mentions of Jal Tarang. Here it is described as a set of four porcelain cups which is successively arranged in increasing order of size, each holding varying amount of water to match specific raga tuning. To create a melodic sound, two tiny sticks are struck against the rims of cups similar to the playing of Naqqara. The author of the text then makes an intriguing comment that this instrument though very popular in foreign countries has no specific name, but the one who plays it are called by the name of “Chini-nawaz[xvi].

Sams al-aswat by Ras Baras Khan, son of Khushal Khan Kalawant (1697 CE), is an abridged translation-cum-commentary of Sangeet Ratnakara which also identified Jal Tarang as a major idiophone[xvii].

Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh provided a detailed description of this instrument in his well-known work Radha Govind Sangeet Saar (1778 CE). He described two varieties- Uttam, which has 22 porcelain or bronze cups, and the Maddhyam, which has 15 cups. A precise amount of water is poured on this instrument to adjust it to the reference pitch (flute, voice, or vina). One can obtain meend, andolon, or alteration as needed by oscillating the water. Playing methods are identical to those of Ahobal, and the Jalayantra is referred to as Jal Tarang in commonly used terminology[xviii].

Qanoon-e-Mauseeqi (Sarmaya-e-Ishrat) by Sadiq Ali Khan (1869 CE) has the first comprehensive description of the modern Jal Tarang as we know it today. Almost everything regarding this instrument is illustrated in this book. There are two versions of this instrument, according to this book: the Desi, which has sixteen porcelain cups filled at varying water levels, and the Angrize (foreign) variety, which has eleven empty glass marble cups without water. In desi, the order of the cups is reversed, while in the other type, the sizes increase gradually from left to right. For presentation, this instrument is accompanied by a Sitar and Dholak. The 16 cups of four kinds are tuned in accordance with the 16 pardas of Sitar. The second type (English), however is tuned in accordance with the Piano. Both instruments are played using kalam, or short sticks; however, the English type has the cups arranged on a table, and is played while standing, whereas the desi type requires the player (Jal Tarang nawaz) to sit down with his legs crossed and folded, while holding the sticks the sticks in hand (figure 2). This book makes an intriguing reference that this instrument, known as Sah (Saz?), is highly popular in Persia[xix].

Jal Tarang was also called S(h)apta sharab[xx] instrument because of its structural similarities with wine glass and according to some popular belief Alexander the Great brought it from India to Greece under the name of water-organ[xxi].

Historical Traces and Significance outside India:

The Western connection

Based on the descriptions provided, it may be inferred that this instrument did not originate in India, but rather arrived through Muslim conquest in central Asia. According to certain textual indications, this instrument was widely used in Central Asia and Asia Minor (Iran, Turkey, and Azerbaijan). Archaeological evidence for the creation of this instrument has been discovered in Greece, Syria, Israel, and Bulgaria. A 400 CE floor mosaic in Maryamin, Syria[xxii], features an image of an instrument resembling a Jal Tarang (figure 3).  

A woman playing eight identically sized bowls that are arranged in two rows on a table with two sticks on the rims of them in that mosaic artwork was identified here. A similar depiction (the Pharaoh Herodes Antypas banquet) was discovered in the so-called Vienna Genesis manuscript (600 CE)[xxiii].

Here we see a woman using two little sticks to strike four bowls on table[xxiv] (figure 4). Modern writings describe many ancient Greek, Byzantine, and Roman texts that refer to the same type of instrument, namely – oxyvaphon, oxyvaphi, or acetabula. Bellermann’s Anonymous II describes the oxyvaphi as a percussion instrument that which when struck produces melody[xxv]. According to the Lexicon of Hesychios from Suida (500 CE), oxyvaphi are shell bowls that are played with a wooden stick and were invented by the ancient comic writer Diokles[xxvi]. The raw materials of oxyvaphi and their timbral impact were discussed by Jonnes Philoponus of Alexandria (500 CE)[xxvii], Cassiodorus of Italy (~549 CE)[xxviii], and Isidore of Seville (600 CE)[xxix].

An anonymous work on music and chemistry from 600 CE had mentioned that oxyvaphi was manufactured of glass[xxx]. The earliest representation of liquid-filled glasses being played with sticks can be found in Gaffurius’ Theorica musicae (1492 CE)[xxxi], which has a woodcut illustration (figure 5) of Pythagoras’ trials with the oxyvaphi, as previously reported by Boethius (500 CE)[xxxii]. Also, the manuscript of Recherches de plusieurs singularités (1587 CE) of Francois Merlin[xxxiii] represents musical instrument of five glasses of decreasing sizes (figure 6).

The Middle East Asian connection:

The 11th century treatise Rasā’il al-Ikhwān al-safā’ f discusses jars (djarar), pots (tardjaharat), and vessels (awanl) as idiophones[xxxiv]. Dar ‘Ilm-i Musīqī of Baba Afzal (1183 CE) described this instrument with illustration (figure 7) where gradually increasing in size, seven cups are used with different amount of water[xxxv]. A stick-playing instrument akin to the tusut was mentioned by Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406 CE)[xxxvi]. In addition, an anonymous fifteenth-century Arabic writer describes kizam (cups) and Khaurabi (jars) as musical instruments with notable water content[xxxvii].

In Favaid-i Ashara, the author, Abd al-Kʣādir ibn Ġaybī al-Ḥāfiẕ al-Marāġī (d. 1436 CE) was acclaimed as the modern inventor of the musical instrument Chini sazi Kasat, which are porcelain cups or China bowls filled with water. He credited his grandfather Kemaladdin Abdulqadir Hafiz Ghaybi as the instrument’s inventor and the first performer. He added more bowls to the instrument (two rows have 18 total, nine large and nine small), and he describes three different tuning techniques. The first one featured one octave’s worth of sounds; the second one has 35 bowls tuned to the sounds of two octaves; and the third variant has eight large bowls and ten additional small bowls tuned in the Huseyni mugham/maqam scale, which has a range that extends to the full scale of the 17-degree octave (the Safiuddin Urmavi scale). He earned praise for his performance by Khwaja Sadreddin ibn Sheyh Safi[xxxviii]. Mahmoud bin Abdulqadirzadeh (~1546 CE), who performed maqam compositions on the Kasat (Saz-e Chini), received ten thousand gold dinar (akche) from Sultan Bayezid[xxxix]. One of the best illustrations of this instrument was retrieved from a miniature painting of a 16th century manuscript depicting of the Matla ul-Anware of Amir Khusrow Dehlawi (figure 8). In this miniature, a person is seen playing Kasat of 9 bowls[xl]. The Ilkhante text, Sāz-i Qaṭāt-i Chīnī described the structure, tuning system and use of similar idiophone that played their Twelve Muqams[xli].

One similar type of instrument that was mentioned in the fifteenth century and is still in use in Turkey (Anatolia) is the filjan saz. There are hundreds of players of that saaz, and it is thought that the instrument was created in India by the Mughans, who worshiped fire[xlii]. A similar named folk instrument, fildzani, of Bosnian folklore, is found which are small, round porcelain cups with varying diameters, and are not traditionally created by local artisans but are instead imported from Turkey and other nations[xliii].

Another reference to this musical instrument can be found in Adam Olearius’ 1647 book The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors from the Duke of Holstein to the Great Duke of Muscovy and the King of Persia 1633–1639. It says-

“For, to heighten the divertisement of the ambassadors, he would needs play on the tamera, which is an instrument used by the Persians instead of the lute: and then, he called for seven porcelane cups, full of water, and striking them with two little sticks, he accorded them with the lute[xliv].

The Encyclopidie ou Dictionnaire raisonnie des sciences, des arts et des mdtiers, a magnificent compilation published by Diderot in 1765, also made the same type of observation- “The Persians have for a long time had an almost similar way i.e., to the tapping of wine glasses] to produce sounds: it is in striking with small sticks on seven porcelain cups filled with a certain quantity of water, which produces chords.”[xlv]

The Southeast Asian connection

The instrument’s prototype was not limited to these areas; it was also widely used in China and Japan. The usage of twelve exquisite porcelain bowls (Ou) that were tuned as a chime (perhaps to the Iii-Iii) by partially filling with water and playing with wooden or metal rods[xlvi] was very famous in China.

According to Shijing, the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) produced the earthenware musical instrument known as Fu (Fou), which was based on the bayin (or “eight tone”) system and resembled an ancient clay bowl used for wine or water[xlvii] (figure 9). Another instrument named Shui Chan, mentioned in Wen Hsien Tung K’ao , an encyclopedia by Ma Tuan-lin (1300 CE) described a modern instrument made up of nine cups with varying amounts of water and played with stick[xlviii]. Hi, is a ceramic gong shaped instrument like a teacup (figure 10)[xlix] of Japan. General term for similar idiophone is Gong or Singing bowl in Thailand and Vietnam region.

Trompong of Bali, Ye gwin of Myanmar (Burma), Sing of Northern China and Bu of Korea, share similarities with Jal Tarang. Cheluring of Java consists of 2-7 small bronze cups permanently set on a wooden underframe and are played with a small iron rod (figure 11). Like Udaka Vadya, splashing / beating on water to produce musical sound was called chikibung or dengdo here[l].

Convergence in India:

The massive and continuous migration of people from Iran to the Deccan and other parts of India led to cultural co-mingling and trade exchange of various musical instruments. Our research referred ample sources that mentions Jal Tarang, as a foreign instrument. It is obvious that Jal Tarang, or its prototype instrument, was known to exist in other countries way back throughout history. As a result, it is abundantly evident from the records above that, Jal Tarang did not originate in India but was brought from abroad during Muslim conquests and gradually developed as a result of numerous instances of intercultural cohabitation of Western, Middle-east and South-east Asian countries in India. Above all, this contributes to the wider phenomena of musical globalization by fostering the idea of continual exchange of musical instruments across national boundaries.

Losing Popularity and Attempts for preservation:

The instrument was rarely played in musical concerts in the past decade, thus becoming obsolete. Notwithstanding its enticing tone, this disappearing art form suffers from exposure and awareness challenges, which discourage even new aspiring artists from pursuing a career in it. A maestro of 25 instruments, including the Jal Tarang, Pt. Dulal Roy bemoaned the loss of the Jal Tarang saying, “Jal-tarang is no more”[li]. The first cause of its decline is due to its complex tuning structure. The bowls are tuned to desired frequency by varying the amount of water, a single alteration of a drop can affect the pitch of the bowl, also the number of cups vary based melodies and therefore arrangement requires precision. To put the cups within easy reach, the player must arrange them in a half circle. Tulankar comments, “It is not easy to tune the instrument and needs a mature musical ear”[lii]. Moreover, he states that this is the only instrument that uses water to tune, and not any other kind of water but -soft water. Secondly, the instrument—a porcelain bowl—is brittle and prone to breaking on transit. Thirdly the instrument cannot be tuned sitting at greenroom but has to be tuned at the exact spot where it will be sat and performed and moreover Jal Tarang requires four to five microphones to capture its sound. Lastly playing complex raga structures, extended note usages like “meend” is not possible in this instrument[liii].

It follows that unless they are motivated by passion, very few pupils will be willing to pursue this instrument as a career. All India Radio had incorporated staff artiste position in Jal Tarang[liv]. Orchestral compositions and movie soundtracks frequently featured this instrument. In 1949, a film named “Jal Tarang” was named after this antique musical instrument and was renowned for its brilliant soundtracks[lv]. But few musicians adopted the instrument in classical performances because of its delicate construction, intricate design, and difficulty playing more difficult Ragas. Film director O.P. Nayyar recounted the decline of the Jal Tarang instrument in a television interview. The musician explained that with the rise of electronic gadgets, there is no demand for such instruments in the industry[lvi].

Rapid globalization has diminished the popularity of traditional instruments like Jal Tarang, Dilruba, Sur-bahar, Vichitra veena etc. To safeguard these arts, the Ministry of Culture launched a scheme to train young enthusiasts under masters. South Central Zonal Cultural Center enlisted experts to train four pupils in rare arts, offering stipends and ensuring their interest[lvii]. The Govt of India, Department of Culture through Zonal Cultural Centers has launched the ‘Guru Shishya Parampara Scheme’ to preserve and promote rare art forms, providing financial assistance in scholarship form under expert guidance[lviii]. The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) is promoting the survival of a traditional instrument by organizing concerts in Delhi and abroad[lix]. Current players aim to pass on the art to future generations, and Seetha Doraiswamy suggests uploading free music on internet websites to encourage it’s buying[lx]. For present and upcoming Jal Tarang performers, this can start a cycle. Sangeet Natak Academy organised the concert “Bharat-Vadya Darshan” at G-20 Summit 2024, featuring rare instruments like Rudra-Veena, Surbahar, and Jal Tarang[lxi]. Rajeswar Acharya from Varanasi is perhaps the only recipient of the Padmashree award in this instrument[lxii].

One of the finest proponents of Jal Tarang is Milind Tulinkar. Milind was motivated to take up and conserve the dying instrument by his grandfather, Pandit Shankar V. Kanhere, a well-known Jal Tarang musician from Satara. Anyampati S Ganesham, M Devendra Sivachariyar, Seetha Doraiswamy are some of the players from south. Other artists includes Nemani Somayajulu,Rijram Desad, Rajab Ali Khan, Kumar Pankaj Sakharkar, Shankar Kanhere; Ramrao Parsatwaar, Dattopant Mangalvedhekar, Dulal Roy, Ranjana Pradhan, Kottayam T.S, Ajith Vikas Achutharamaih, Ramrao Parsatwaar, Master Mahrnahar Barve, Ragini Trivedi, Shasikala Dani, Chintamani Jain.

Work Cited


[i]  “ पुष्पास्तरणम्, दशर्नवसनाङ्गररागः, म- जिभूमिकाकर्म, शयनैश्चनम्, उदकवाद्यम्, उर्दकेाघातः, चित्रा योगाः ”

[ii]   “आलारिये च सूदेच नटनट्टक गायने, पाणिस्सरे कुम्भयूनिके मणिम्हि पस्स निम्मितं I”; Vidhura Pandit Jataka “आळारिका च सूवा च नट नट्टक गायका, पाणिस्सरा कुम्भयूनियो मण्डका सोकझायिका ॥“; Vessantara Jataka

[iii] “आकाशगङ्गाजलवादनज्ञाः सदा युवत्यो मदनैकचित्ताः । अवादयंस्ता जलदर्दुरांश्च वाद्यानुरूपं जगिरे च हृष्टाः ।“

[iv] “अहोरात्रैश्चतुःषष्ट्या संयत्तौ तावतीः कलाः । गुरुदक्षिणयाचार्यं छन्दयामासतुर्नृप ॥“

[v]उदकवाद्यमिति । उदके मुरजादिवद्वाद्यम्”

[vi] “तीरस्थलीबर्हिभिरुत्कलापैः प्रस्निग्धकेकैरभिनन्द्यमानम्। श्रोत्रेषु संमूर्च्छति रक्तमासाम् गीतानुगम् वारिमृदङ्गवाद्यम् ॥“

[vii] Thakur Jaydeva Sing; Bharatiya Sangit Ka itihas, p.238

[viii] Sundaram B.M.; Proceedings of  The Talavadya Seminar No, 2 and Allied Papers, 1993

[ix] Saqinama, BL Or. 338 f.54v

[x] Helffer, M et al; Cahiers de Musiques Traditionnelles, 16, 208.

[xi] Sharma Sunil; Chapter 8, Garden and Landscape Practices in Pre-colonial India

[xii] “सारंग जलतरंग धुनियारी , तबला चाहूं या नरसिम्हा ढोफरी; इहि विधि भोर गुफा धूनी गाजै, नाना रंग मधुर धूनी बाजै।“

[xiii] “सुर मण्डल, पिनाक, अरू महुवरि, जलतरंग मन मोहें ।“

[xiv] “बाजत जल तरंग बहु मानो जंत्री जंत्र कर लीन्हा, सुनत सुनत जिव थकित भयो मानो ह्वै गयो सब्द अधीना.”

[xv]जलयंत्रं क्षुद्रघंटा परं कल्पतरुस्ततः ॥ काष्ठतालारूय इत्येषां लक्षणं कथ्यतेऽधुना ॥ ७२ ॥ द्वाविंशत्या च पात्रैस्तु जलयंत्रं सतां मतम् ।। पत्रैः कतिपयैर्दीनं यंत्रं तन्मध्यगं भवेत् ॥ ८५ ॥  पात्राणि स्थापनीयानि क्रमादुश्च्चतराणि च ॥  तेषु च जलयोगेन न्यूनताऽपि भवेध्रुवम् ॥ ८६ ॥ अन्यवाद्यस्त्रराशृण्वन् कुर्यान्मेलं च बुद्धिमान् ॥ वितस्तिमानकांडाम्यां वादनीयं विचक्षणैः ॥ ८७ ॥  स्फालनं संमतं तत्र वारिमिश्रितमस्तके ॥ ८८ ॥  इति जलयंत्रम् ।।“

[xvi] “وسنگین بر سازند -جلترنگ : پیاله های چینی چهار تیم : یکیاز یکی خورد –  چندین آب خوره را پر آب کنند – برای هرراگ موافق شهرهای آن کم و زیاده آب باید کرد – دو چوب که در یکی به قدرا انگشت کوچک باشد به دست گرفته نقاره آسابنوازنددر ولایت ایت هم این ساز هست اما نام نه دارد. سازنده این را چینی نو از گویند، چنانچه در شعرہم بسته اند بیت یک طرف چینی نوازان سبک دست از فنون ر مجلس را زیبا عشه پای بی می سرگران”

[xvii] “و غیره و مجموع گهن را منجیره میگویند ۲۰ و آن شش وجه است، چنانچه [جل ترنگ ۲ و غیره.”

[xviii] “अथ जलजंत्रको लछन लिख्यते ॥ बाईस ।२२। कटोरि कांसेकी अथवा चिणीकी कटोरि बाईस । २२ । लीजिये । सो पूरनजंत्रजलवाध जांनिये । यानें पनदरे ।१५। कटोरि होय सो। मध्यमं जलजंवजांनिये । इहाँ पात्र पहले सौ लेकें सब अनुक्रमसों ऊंचे ऊंचे राखिये । ऊनमें जल भरिये । सो जलस्वरके अनुसारतें घाटे वधि कीजिये । ऊन कटोरीनमें वीणांके अथवा मुरलीके । अथवा कंठके अनुस्वर शुद्ध विऋत षड्जादि सात स्वर राखिये । फेर वीणाकी सीनाई राग उपजे । एक एक बिछसतेके दोय डंका ठेकें । चतुर इष्टगुनी रागनी उपजे । अपने चतुराई सोंजे दोऊ हाथमें होयते सेंही बजावे । या जलजंत्रमें स्वरकों दावि वो जलजुत कटोरिके किंनारेके छुथेतें होत है ॥ एसेंहि यार्ने । आंदोलन ।१। मीडन ।२। आदिक स्वरनके वरतावे । सास्त्र- की रितिसों गुरु मुखसों जांनिये ॥ यांको लौकीकमें जलतरंग कहे हैं ॥ इति जलजंत्रलछन संपूर्णम् “

[xix] Qanoon-e-Mauseeqi (Sarmaya-e-Ishrat) by Sadiq Ali Khan; Khuda Bakhsh Library, Patna, 2nd edition 1884.

[xx] Thakur Sourendra Mohon; Yantra Kosha

[xxi] Sambamoorthy P., History Of Indian Music

[xxii] Gavrili, Paraskevi; Rahden/Westf. : Leidorf, 2010

[xxiii] Hofmann, Christa et al; The Vienna Genesis, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 2020

[xxiv] Kilierich Bente; Acta Ad Archaeologiam Et Artium Historiam Pertinentia, 22(8 N.S.), 87–107

[xxv] Najock Dietmar, 1975

[xxvi] Adler, Ada.; Suidae Lexicon

[xxvii] Ibid. I, 364.10–2.

[xxviii] Cassiodorus 1937: 144.11–5.

[xxix] Isidorus Hispalensis, “Etymologiarum libri XX.” Patrologia Latina. Vol. 82: 1850: 164–9.

[xxx] Berthelot and Ruelle, Collection des anciens alchimistes Grecs. Paris: G. Steinheil1988: 438.14

[xxxi] Gaffurius, Franchinus; Theorica musicae; 1492.

[xxxii] Friedlein, Gottfried.; De institutione arithmetica libri duo; Teubner1878: 198.17–21.

[xxxiii] https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9061149v/f176.item.r=Francoys+Merlin.langEN

[xxxiv] Rasa’il Ikhwan al-Safa’; Beirut: Dar Sadir,, 1957

[xxxv] https://www.digitalcollections.manchester.ac.uk/view/MS-PERSIAN-00346/153

[xxxvi] Sandj; Encyclopaedia of Islam; vol. IX p. 11, Leiden Brill, 1997.

[xxxvii] BL Or. 2361, fol. 173

[xxxviii] Abdülkādir-i Merâgī, Risâle-i Fevâʾid-i ʿAşere, Ms.3651/2, Nurosmaniye, Istanbul

[xxxix] Mahmoud bin Abdulaziz bin Khwaja Abdulqadir (N.Y.). Maqasid al-dwar. MS № 3649. Nuruosmaniye library, Istanbul.

[xl] Amir Khusrow Dehlawī (N.Y.). Matla ul-Anwar. MS PNS № 267. Russian State Library.

[xli] Lucas, Ann E.; Music of a Thousand Years

[xlii] Farmer, Henry George. Turkish Instruments of Music in the 17th Century. Glasgow, 1937.

[xliii] Talam, Jasmina.; Folk Musical Instruments in Bosnia and Herzegovina

[xliv]openlibrary.org book ID OL6951428M

[xlv] https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/155874

[xlvi] Picken, E. R.; T’ANG MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

[xlvii] TEMPO 73 (289) 30–41, 2019

[xlviii] Moule, A. C.; A List of the Musical and Other Sound-Producing Instruments of the Chinese. Shanghai

[xlix] Piggott, Francis Taylor et al; The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan

[l] Kunst, J.; Music in Java: It’s History

[li]http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1869685132.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst

[lii] https://kalasamvaad.blogspot.com/2016/02/jalataranga-milind-tulankar.html

[liii] ibid

[liv] https://omenad.net/page.php?goPage=%2Farticles%2Fjal_tarang.htm

[lv] https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/reviving-the-sweet-sound-of-jal-tarang/article3330919.ece

[lvi] https://indianartz.com/2009/music/musical-instruments/jal-tarang/

[lvii] https://omenad.net/page.php?goPage=%2Farticles%2Fjal_tarang.htm

[lviii] https://www.indiaculture.gov.in/financial-assistance-promotion-guru-shishya-parampara-repertory-grant

[lix]  https://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2012/05/jaltarang-music-worth-experiencing/

[lx] ibid

[lxi] https://www.newsonair.gov.in/bharat-vadya-darshanam-by-gaandharva-aaradhyam-group-to-perform-for-world-leaders-attending-g20-summit/

[lxii] https://www.amarujala.com/gorakhpur/padmashree-prof-rajeshwar-acharya-made-a-world-record-by-playing-jaltarang